Ib Psychology Sociocultural Notes

Explain the formation of sort outs and their effect on behavior. Definition Stereotypes assign identical char put to workeristics to all members of a group, despite the fact that the group members may vary widely from one an otherwise. Characteristics accessible-cognitive theories our neighborly world is very complex and presends us with too much data since our capacity to process tuition is limited, in that location is a need to simplify our social musical mode one of the way to avoid schooling overload is social categorization these are stereotypes Stereotypes simplify information processing in social perceptual experience stereotypes are schemas as they are energy-saving devices, automatically activated, stable and resistant to change, affect behavior. Not stable crosswise cluture Studies COHEN Cohen presented take aparticipants with a videotape showing a woman having dinner with her husband. Half the participants were told that the woman was a look and the rest that s he was a librarian. At a subsequently memory test, participants showed better recall for stereotype- consistent information. Those who survey she was a dwellress remembered her beer drinking.Participants who thought she was a librarian were more the give carely to remember that she was wearing supply and was listening to classical music. Like the studies on the effects of schemas, Cohens fill shows that we are likely to recognise and subsequently remember information which is consistent with our stereotypes. FISKE AND DYER Like all schemas, stereotypes are formed over condemnation on the basis of relevant experiences. For Fiske and Dyer (1985), stereotype formation begins with the education of independent schema elements. For example, the formation of a ender schema for female begins with isolated elements such as girls fare in pink and girls revivify with dolls whereas, boys dress in blue and play with cars. With advancing age additional elements are added, such as inf ormation about gender-appropriate behaviours and work- consortd preferences. Eventually, strong associations form between all the various elements and a single schema emerges. at one date formed, repeated practice in the mapping of the schema may lead to such trains of integration that it sens be activated automatically and unconsciously seen consequently. Bargh Participants in this experiment were asked to complete a test involving 30 items.This task was presented to the participants as a language proficiency task. Each of the 30 items consisted of five unrelated words. For severally item participants had to use 4 of the five words to form, as fast as possible, a grammatically correct sentence. There were deuce sees in this experiment. In one, the task contained words related to and intending to activate the condemnation-worn stereotype (e. g. grey, retired, wise). In the other condition, the words utilize were unrelated to the elderly stereotype (e. g. thirsty, clean, private). After complementary the experimental tasks, participants were directed towards the elevator.A confederate, sitting in the corridor, timed how long the participants took to walk from the experimental room to the elevator. Bargh et al. embed that participants who had their elderly stereotype activated walked signifi discounttly more slowly towards the elevator than the rest of the participants. Priming of this stereotype must(prenominal) befuddle taken target unconsciously. As Bargh et al. note, the task words did not directly relate to time or speed and no conscious awareness of the elderly stereotype was ever in evidence for the duration of the study. Illusory correlationThese researchers asked participants to read descriptions about dickens make-up groups ( throng A and Group B). The descriptions were establish on a number of positive and negative behaviours. Group A (the absolute majority group) had twice as many members than Group B (the minority group). In the de scriptions, Group A members runed 18 positive and 8 negative behaviours. Group B members performed 9 positive and 4 negative behaviours. So, for both groups, twice as much of the information involved positive, kind of than negative, behaviours. Clearly, there was no correlation between group social rank and the types of behaviours exhibited by the groups.However, when asked later, participants did seem to have perceived an illusory correlation. more than of the undesirable behaviours were attri neverthelessed to the minority Group B, than the majority Group A. Hamilton and Giffords explanation of their findings is base on the mood that distinctive information draws assistance. Group B members and negative behaviours are both numerically fewer and so more distinct than Group A members and negative behaviours. The combination of Group B members performing negative behaviours, therefore, stands out more than the combination of Group A members performing such behaviours.This cau ses the illusory correlation. Explain social unwraping theory, making reference to two relevant studies. kind Learning theory In particular social apprehending theorists emphasise the case of observation and imitation of role models. In general, social development is seen as a continuous reading process, rather than as happening in stages. -If children were passive witnesses to an aggressive presentation by an grown they would model this aggressive behavior when given the opportunity. -The researchers attempted to reduce this problem by pre-testing the children for how aggressive they were.They did this by observant the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales. It was then possible to run across the children in each group so that they had resembling levels of aggression in their everyday behaviour. The experiment is therefore an example of a matched pairs design. Controllight-emitting diode 24 in a group The findings suppo rt Banduras Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression with the process of observation learning through watching the behaviour of another individual.The findings from this and similar studies have been apply in the tune that media violence great power be contri onlying in some degree to violence in society. The obvious criticism of this argument is that there are many other factors influencing whether or not we are likely to imitate screen violence. One of the major factors is perhaps the level of aggression we already have, which might have been learned, in our family relationships or elsewhere. The major criticism of the Social Learning Approach to child development is its oversimplified description of human behaviour.Although it can apologize some quite complex behaviour it cannot adequately account for how we develop a all told range of behaviour including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control over our behavio ur and patently because we have had experiences of violence does not mean we have to reproduce such behaviour. It is also worth noting that the Social Learning Approach has little room for the role of inherited factors or for the role of maturation in development. This theory assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning in other words, mess can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.Explain Attention The person must primary pay attention to the model. Retention The reviewer must be able to remember that behavior has been observed. Motor reproduction The observer has to be able to replicate the action. Coding/remember the act. Motivation Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Whether or not they like the model. Liking. Rewards/punishment. Identification. Consistency. Internalized outcome expectancies. Increases the likelihood of carrying out. If we identify with the model (we want to be like them) Bandura Reinforcement is not infallible for learningVicarious- Unintentionally picking up something. Indirect learning. Unconscious. This theory assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior. Attention The person must starting line pay attention to the model. Retention The observer must be able to remember that behavior has been observed. Motor reproduction The observer has to be able to replicate the action. Coding/remember the act. Motivation Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Whether or not they like the model. Liking. Rewards/punishment.Identification. Consistency. If we identify with the model (we want to be like them) Internalized outcome expectancies. Increases the likelihood of carrying out. Bandura Reinforcement is not necessary for learning Vicarious- Unintentionally picking up something. Indirect learning. Unconscious. Conscious Control condition The children were shown the film with the expectant behaving aggressively towards the Bobo doll. Model-rewarded condition Children saw the same film utilise in the control condition but after the aggression was over, a twinkling enceinte appeared in the film to reward the aggressor with sweets and a soft drink.Bobo dolls are clown-like dolls with a weight in the bottom. They are designed in such a way as to always bounce back when knocked down. Model-punished condition As the model-rewarded condition, but the second adult scolded and spanked the model for behaving aggressively. After viewing the film, all the children were taken individually into a playroom with several toys which include a Bobo doll and a mallet. While in the playroom, the childrens behaviour was observed for a stop consonant of 10 minutes and any acts of aggression similar to those performed by the model were recorded.The control and the model-rewarded groups showed an equal level of aggressiveness towards the Bobo doll (2. 5 act s). The model-punished condition was associated with importantly fewer aggressive acts (1. 5 acts). However, when at a later stage the children were asked to reproduce the behaviour of the model and were rewarded for each act of aggression they displayed, they all (regardless of which master key condition they were in) produced the same number of aggressive acts (3. 5 acts). Banduras study exemplified and supported the following features of SLT.Vicarious (observational) learning The children clearly learned specific aggressive behaviours by observing the adult model. The learning manifested during the second part of the study was based on vicarious reinforcement or punishment as the children were never rewarded or punished themselves. Reinforcement or punishment was necessary for performance not learning All children behaved in an equally aggressive manner towards the Bobo doll when rewarded to do so. Selective imitation in 14-month-old infants (Gergely et al. , 2002) This experi ment used 14-month-old infants as participants and involved two conditions.Hands- handsome condition In this condition, the infants observed an adult place her hands on a table. Following this, she used a strange action to illuminate a light boxful she bent over and pressed the box with her forehead. One workweek later, the same infants were given the opportunity to play with the box 69% of them used their head to illuminate the light. Hands-occupied condition Infants in this condition observed the adult perform the same strange action to illuminate the box. In this condition, however, the model was using her hands to mince a blanket around her shoulders.This rendered the hands unavailable for other actions. When given the opportunity one week later to play with the box, only 21% of the infants illuminated the light by using their head. The rest used their hands to press the light. demonstrateing their findings, Gergely et al. note that in the hands-occupied condition infants seem to have assumed that the adult used her head because she had to. But this constraint did not apply to the infants. In the hands-free condition, the adult could have chosen to use her hands. She did not.The children seem to have assumed there must have been a reason for this choice, so they copied it. Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballing, foot? in? the? door, reciprocity). Aronson et al. (2007) define compliance as a form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another. A demonstration of the FITD technique (Freeman and Fraser, 1966) These researchers arranged for a researcher, posing as a volunteer worker, to ask a number of householders in California to leave behind a big ugly public-service sign reading Drive Carefully to be placed in their front gardens.Only 17% of the householders complied with this request. A disaccordent set of homeowners was asked whether they would display a small Be a Safe Driver sign. Nearly all of those asked agreed with this request. Two weeks later these same homeowners were asked, by a volunteer worker, whether they would display the much bigger and ugly Drive Carefully sign in their front gardens. 76% of them complied with this second request, a far higher percentage than the 17% who had complied in the first condition.In a second study, Freedman and Frazer (1966) first asked a number of householders to sign a implore in favour of keeping California beautiful, something nearly everybody agreed to do. After two weeks, they send a youthful volunteer worker who asked these homeowners whether they would allow the big and ugly Drive Carefully sign of the previous study to be displayed in their front gardens. Note that the two requests relate to completely different topics, but nearly half of the homeowners agreed with the second request.Again, this is significantly higher than the 17% of homeowners who agreed to display the sign in the absence of any prior contact. But, how could the findings of the second experiment be explained? According to Freeman and Frazer (1966), signing the petition changed the view the homeowners had about themselves. As a result, they saw themselves as unselfish citizens with well-developed civic principles. Agreeing, two weeks later, to display the Drive Carefully sign reflected their need to comply with their newly-formed self-image.Not only do commitments change us but also, to use Gialdinis own expression, they grow their own legs. Sherman (1980) called residents in Indiana (USA) and asked them if, hypothetically, they would volunteer to spend 3 hours collecting for the American Cancer Society. Three days later, a second experimenter called the same people and actually requested help for this organization. Of those responding to the earlier request, 31% agreed to help. This is much higher than the 4% of a similar group of people who volunteered to help when approached directly. Low-ballingIt involves changing an offe r to make it less attractive to the target person after this person has agreed to it. A demonstration of lowballing (Burger and Cornelius, 2003) In this study, students were contacted by phone by a female caller and asked whether they would be prepared to donate five dollars to a scholarship fund for underprivileged students. There were three experimental conditions. The lowball condition Students were told that those who contributed would receive a coupon for a free smoothie at a local juice bar. Students who agreed were then informed that the investigator completed she had run out of coupons.The students were asked if they would still be willing to contribute. 77. 6% agreed to make a gratuity in this condition. The interrupt condition The caller made the same initial request as in the lowball condition. However, before the participants had a chance to give their answer, the caller interrupted them to let them know that there were no more coupons left. Only 16% of the partici pants made a donation in this condition. The control condition Participants were simply asked to donate the five dollars without any mention of coupons. 42% made a donation in the control condition.The results support the view that the lowball technique is based on the principle of commitment. The technique is effective only when individuals make an initial public commitment. Once they have made this commitment, individuals feel obliged to act in accordance with it even when the conditions that led to them making the commitment have changed, (Cialdini, 2009). Discuss factors influencing consonance (for example, ending, groupthink, angry shift, minority influence). Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour (for example, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, Confucian muscularity).We have already delimitate the terms individualism and collectivism as used by Hofstede. Cultures differ with respect to how they socialize their members to develop identi ties that are either individually or collectively based. In laissez-faire(a) cultures -the personal is emphasized more than the social -persons are viewed as unique -individual autonomy and self-expression are cute -competitiveness and self-sufficiency are highly regarded. Societies high on collectivism are characterized by giving precession to the goals of important groups (e. g. xtended family, work group) and define ones identity on the basis of ones membership of such groups. So, in collectivist cultures -the social is emphasized more than the personal -the self is defined by long-standing relationships and obligations -individual autonomy and self-expression are not upgraded -there is more of an emphasis on achieving group consent rather than on individual achievement. It is not that members of individualistic societies do not have the need to choke or that their identities are exclusively personal identities.SIT was after all developed in individualistic counties (e. g. UK, Australia) to explain primarily the behaviour of members of those societies. However, they are less focused on group harmony or doing their barter for the types of mostly traditional group that collectivist societies are based on (Brewer and Chen, 2007). This hypothesis was tested in a field experimentexperimental study by Petrova et al. (2007). Their study involved over 3000 students of a US university. Nearly half were native US students and the rest were Asiatic students at the same university.All were sent an e-mail asking them to participate in a survey. A month later, the students received a second e-mail asking them whether they would agree to take part in an online survey. Petrova et al. obtained the standard FITD effect. The proportion of students who had agreed to the first survey and then agreed to the second was higher than the proportion who had initially agreed to the first survey. More importantly, the researchers also found that compliance was twice as strong w ith the native US students as it was with the Asian students for the second equest. This finding is even more remarkable if one takes into account that the first request led to a higher level of compliance among the Asian students. Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch paradigm. The studies were carried out in 17 countries. The meta-analysis showed that more conformity was obtained in collectivistic countries like the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong and Brazil than in individualistic countries like the USA, the UK or France (Table 4. 2).Bond and Smiths findings are consistent with the way that the individualism/collectivism dimension was portrayed earlier (pages 135136). Members of collectivistic countries value conformity because it promotes encouraging group relationships and reduces conflicts. This, agreeing with others in collectivist societies is more likely to be viewed as a sign of sensibility than one of submission to somebo dy elses will, which is the way it is often perceived in individualistic cultures (Hodges and Geyer, 2006). many an(prenominal) have argued that time is not defined and perceived in the same way everywhere.To a significant extent, the way humans experience time is influenced by their culture (Hall, 1959). In 2001, Hofstede proposed a classification of cultures based on their time orientation. In the mid-80s, Bond asked a number of Chinese social scientists to create a list of what Chinese people viewed as their basic values (Hofstede and Bond, 1988). A questionnaire, based on this list, was then administered to people in 23 countries. The outcome of this project was the emergence of a fifth cultural dimension, not related to the other four originally identified by Hofstede (page 000).The additional dimension was called Confucian dynamism because it reflected Confuciuss ideas about the importance of perseverance, patience, social hierarchy, thrift and having a sense of shame. The ne w dimension was later renamed long-term vs short-time orientation. Cultures scoring high on this dimension show a dynamic, future-oriented mentality. These are cultures that value long-standing, as opposed to short-term, traditions and values. Individuals in such cultures strive to fulfil their own long-term social obligations and avoid button of face. Cultures with a short-term view are not as concerned with past traditions.They are rather impatient, are present-oriented and strive for immediate results. In practical terms, the long-term versus short-term orientation refers to the degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs among their members (Matsumoto and Juang, 2008). Seven of the ten highest ranking countries on Hofstedes time orientation dimension were in Asia. horse opera countries tended to be more short-term oriented. In eastern countries, characterized by a long-time orientation, patience is valued more than in Weste rn countries.Based on this, Chen et al. predicted that part of the Western mentality is to place a higher value on immediate consumption than an eastern mentality. They investigated this idea in an experimental study using 147 Singaporean bicultural participants. This technique uses participants who have been exposed extensively to two different cultures (in this case, Singaporean and American) and assumes that both can affect behaviour depending on which is more actively correspond in the mind at any particular moment. Chen et al. electively activated one or the other of the two cultures by presenting half the participants with a collage of easily recognizable photos which were relevant to Singaporean culture and the other half with a collage of photos relevant to US culture. Impatience was tested by having the participants perform an online shopping scenario in order to purchase a novel. The book could be delivered either within four working days for a standard fee or next day fo r an additional charge. The senseless money participants were willing to pay for faster delivery of the book was used as a criterion of impatience.Chen et al. found that US-primed participants valued immediate consumption more than the Singaporean-primed participants. Strong support of cultural differences in time orientation comes from an impressive study by Wang et al. (2009). They surveyed over 5000 university students in 45 countries and compared them on time orientation. They found, for instance, that students culmination from what they call long-term orientation cultures were also more likely to postpone immediate satisfaction and wait for bigger rewards later.Ayoun and Moreo (2009) used a survey method to investigate the influence of time orientation on the strategic behaviour of hotel managers. A questionnaire was posted to top-level hotel managers in the USA and Thailand. Compared to US managers, Thai managers were found to place a stronger emphasis on longer-term strate gic plans and a stronger reliance on long-term evaluation of strategy. heathenish differences in time orientation also seem to relate to everyday behaviours.Levine and Norenzayan (1999) measured how fast people walked a 60-foot distance in downtown areas in major cities, the speed of a visit to a post office, and the accuracy of clocks in 31 countries. They found that life pace, as indicated by the activities they measured, was quickest in countries like Switzerland, Ireland and Germany and slowest in Mexico, Indonesia, Brazil, and Syria. The last three studies are natural experiments and, in effect, observational studies. Their findings should, therefore, be interpreted with caution as no confident causal statements can be made in the absence of adequate extraneous variables.